Under Construction

One of the most amazing things about the human mind is its ability to connect vast amounts of information in complex networks. These webs, or frameworks, are so complex that we have only recently begun to understand the process that one goes through when assimilating and accommodating new information. Assimilation an

d accommodation are two of the ideas that Dr. Orey (Laureate, 2008) discusses when talking about constructivism and constructionism in educational psychology. While constructivism states that every learner builds an understanding of the world based on their experiences and perceptions of concepts, constructionism takes this a step further and says that learners are more attentive when they actively create products in order to create those perceptions and experiences themselves (Laureate, 2008). Project learning, formulating and testing hypotheses, and engaging in self-directed learning with the intention of solving a problem are all examples of constructionist approaches to learning.

Why is this kind of learning experience important? Well, simply put, the students are in control of their own learning and are creating, through experience, their own understandings of the world around them. They are using content knowledge, decision making processes, analytical skills, creating an understanding of the history of the problem or issue, and expanding their vocabulary (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). All of these are high level thinking skills and are challenging

processes for any student to engage in. The accommodation of new information gained through these processes help expand the student’s schema and provide new ways of understanding the world. This is never an easy process, but it is more relevant to the lives of the students when choice is involved and self-direction is included because the students are beginning from a unique perspective of their world.

This is also a situation where technology has been able to help students. As Hubble et al. (2007) point out, “New developments...allow students to spend more time interpreting the data rather than gathering the data” (p. 203). As students are faced with more and more information, the ability to quickly assemble the information into a meaningful format has become necessary for them to be able to construct meaningful bridges between the information in front of them and the information in their own minds. When students engage in generating and testing hypotheses, they are really engaging in constructionist learning because they are identifying a problem and working to solve that problem through engaging with data. If the data is overwhelming and not easily identifiable, the student spends valuable time trying to gather the data and sort it into a meaningful arrangement before they are able to analyze and interpret it. Projects like creating a concept map or participating in a lab allow a student to formulate ideas and then test those ideas and create connections between data.

As new information becomes available, students are able to modify their hypotheses to allow for growth in learning. This is something that one sees with NASA simulation programs for students and the kinds of project based learning activities listed

on Apple’s teacher site. By including students in problem based and project based learning the students can explore information that challenges their schema in meaningful, hands-on ways. As students construct their own understanding of the information they discover, they need to have the opportunity to share that information with their peers and with the teacher. The use of spreadsheets for data collection and graphs for data sharing allow students to explore the differences in data with others in a quick and meaningful way. Collaborative concept mapping also allows for sharing of information and the creation of new knowledge pathways.

It is important to note though, as the University of Helsinki (emTech, 2010) points out, constructivist and constructionist models

may not be beneficial to students without an intentional, systematic process that is well thought out by an instructor. Simply providing students with projects to do or problems to solve does not necessarily mean that they will construct the “right”

knowledge from the activity and, therefore, teachers need to have a very good understanding of the instructional goals of a project before turning the students loose on it.

As with any educational theory, constructivist/constructionist learning and teaching is a tool that can be used in conjunction with other theories and practices. To rely completely on one school of thought would be to limit the overall effectiveness of instruction for the students. The real skill in being an educator is determining when and where constructionism is best suited to the specific educational goals that a teacher has in mind. Discovering information and creating products is absolutely one of the best ways to engage students in meaningful learning, but at the end of the day the students still need teachers to help guide them and make sure that those products/projects are demonstrating a growth in understanding. In the same way, using a spreadsheet or a simulation can be an effective use of technology, but just like with other technology, if the wrong technology is used for a project the technology can become the focus of the learning instead of the information. Having said that though, technology is allowing students to quickly manage much more information than was possible even ten years ago and the kinds of products that are available now, such as websites, podcasts, and multimedia presentations, allow students to

build a much vaster, much more interactive network of ideas and products than ever before. The minds of students are always under construction, but just as in the real world, they need a foreman to oversee that the construction is done in the right ways.

emTech. (2010). Constructivism, instructivism, and related sites. Retrieved from http://www.emtech.net/construc.htm

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008). Program seven. Constructionist and Constructivist Learning Theories [Motion picture]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

I always thought my students came from a different planet and it turns out they do…according to cognitivism.

Everything we learn is based on our understanding of the information we are trying to learn, the information that we already have stored in our brains, and our attention on and motivation to take in new materials (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Even if we are motivated to learn the information we can only attend to a small number of items at one time and therefore it is important that a teacher does not overwhelm a learner with too much information according to Dr. Orey (Laureate, 2008a). So where does that leave us? Well, it leaves us with a starting place to discuss cognitivism in the classroom, and with the realization that our students are literally living on a different planet than we are because they understand their world differently.

If teachers know that students go through a specific process when they are constructing their understanding of information being presented, and if teachers know that part of that process is dependent on making connections to previously learned information, then teachers should be able to create learning experiences that prep students for success. It is also important for teachers to recognize that there are limits to the amount of attention even the most motivated students can provide to tasks in a classroom and, therefore, teachers need to be aware of how much information is being thrown at the students. It also means that there are certain activities that will lend themselves to deep student thinking if the questions and information sought from the student is clearly defined and of a deep and inviting construction.

Teachers need to think about the kinds of assignments they are asking their students to complete and the level of questions that are being asked of those students. Without explicitly teaching students about using good note taking strategies, many students fall into the habits, be they good or bad, that teachers have explicitly taught them in the past. Unfortunately, many of those explicit teachings of note taking were based on outdated research that does make use of the current technological tools such as wikis, blogs, organizing software, and word processor templates as Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) suggest. As technology changes, and our understanding of the way that students take in, process, and synthesize changes, teachers must make changes to their instruction in order to help students make connections and intricate understandings of the relationships between the information presented to them in a variety of settings. Teachers also need to understand that students will have a better grasp of the information presented if it is presented through different modalities because it gives the students more ways to connect information which is important for retention according to Dr. Wolfe (Laureate, 2008b).

Students also need to know what it is that they are trying to learn as well. Without a clear purpose, it would be easy for students to attend to the wrong information being presented to them. Since their attention is the first step in them understanding the information it is imperative that they fully understand and attend to the goal for the learning experience if meaning is to become engrained in their minds. This can be accomplished by providing the students with cues, organizers, and intentional questions. All of these are strategies that help the students identify their purpose and attend to specific information that is deemed of value (Pitler, et al., 2007). Through specific technology programs like Inspiration, spreadsheets, and word processors, students can be provided with a structure within which to explore ideas (Pitler, et al., 2007).

That structure is important because it allows a teacher to control the forum in which the learning is taking place so the learning can be modified for the instructional purpose at hand. This is also true in the case of providing background knowledge through virtual field trips and concept maps. By providing students an opportunity to explore a location inaccessible because of distance, time, or money, the students can still experience, in a limited form, a location or set of information without having to physically attend the site. A class studying Beowulf might be able to take a virtual tour of the British library in a single class period instead of having to board a plane, fly to England, and physically walk into the library. In this way, students who might never have the opportunity to see the original manuscript would not be denied, in totality, the experience of interacting with the text.

In the same way, a teacher could then have the students build a concept map about the story which could include images, the information from the virtual field trip, the Hollywood interpretations of the text, the teacher’s interpretation of the text, and any other information that the student might already have about the text into a single document. This would illustrate the student’s ability to synthesize information from a variety of sources and formats, provide an insight into the connections that they have made between those sources, and the level of knowledge that they have about the text. When combined with other students’ concept maps, this would provide an impressive tool that a teacher could expand on in future lessons and provide students with access to a wealth of information from their peers (Novak & Cañas, 2008).

At the end of the day, the teacher has a multitude of ways to try to engage students in their lessons. The first step is to get the students to clearly understand and then attend to the lesson though. Assuming that the teacher can fulfill these requirements, using strategies like those listed above will lead to a deeper understanding of information from students. Teachers need to understand how the brain works and what learning strategies are effective for the specific instructional goal that they have. Once they are clear on what they are trying to accomplish and understand how the brain functions, the more likely it is that they will pick the appropriate instructional strategy to accomplish that learning objective and the clearer they will be able to identify that objective for their students.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008a). Program five. Cognitive Learning Theory [Motion picture]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008b). Program two. Brain Research and Learning [Motion picture]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Novak, J. D. & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them, Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008. Retrieved from the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition Web site: http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Wrench + Mechanic = A vehicle that purrsss ...... Wrench + Me = Disaster ..................... Behaviorism works the same way

Some people say that behaviorism has no place in schools. In fact, Dr. Orey goes so far as to say that psychiatrists and psychologists would say this (Laureate Education, Inc., 2008). Of course, that would be to ignore the power of the theory in the day in and day out operation of schools. Many schools rely on this school of thought to manage their discipline programs and prepare for state tests. In addition, operant conditioning is a hallmark of the Positive Behavioral Support model that so many schools have adopted.

But it is easy to see how behaviorism would be effective in managing student behavior. So what then is all the hullabaloo about when it comes to behaviorism in schools? Well, behaviorism doesn't translate well into higher level learning. Does that mean that it doesn't have a place in the classroom? The answer, in m

y mind, is a resounding yes and no.

Like anything, behaviorism when used intentionally and for specific purposes can be very effective at providing students with a way to understand some foundational concepts. When used as a way to reinforce a skill such as identification, this strategy can be effective. Take, for instance, the use of programs like Study Island for test preparation. When focusing on identification of sentence parts, a relatively low level skill, the model of immediate reinforcement can increase test scores and help students to work on memorization of factual information. This is also true for tracking effort on assignments as is presented by Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007). The concept of behaviorism can also be easily applied to mathematical problems where consistent practice of a skill is beneficial when there is immediate feedback on the work of the student (Pitler et al., 2007).

In fact, the whole concept of grades as reinforcements of behavior is a tradition in education. Even when grades are substituted for proficiency levels, the idea is the same. When students spreadsheets of scores so that they can see their progress over time, they are really engaging in the concepts presented in behaviorism. The student's behavior is affected by outside factors. This is also true for the breakdown of specific skills and behavioral objectives that show up in classrooms as preparation for standardized testing. Standardized testing relies on this kind of model because authentic, product based assessments are individualized and not easily molded into a behaviorism model in the way that simple identification, knowledge level questions, and descriptions do. Smith (2000) describes this process in terms of looking at curriculum as a product.

One of the biggest pitfalls of behaviorism is that it can be used as the end all be all approach to education. When this happens, as it is happening in many schools who focus simply on standardized test preparation, students are not engaged in the kinds of meaningful interactions with content or technology that could make their learning experiences truly life changing (Laureate Education, Inc., 2008). There is a place for behaviorism in the classroom and it can be used with effectiveness especially in online learning

environments with tutorials, but it must be used intentionally and with a clear purpose in order to provide a high quality learning experience for the students and the teachers. To say that behaviorism should be removed from the toolbox of educators is like saying that a metric wrench is useless for cars; what would be more appropriate would be to specify the cars that a metric wrench could be used on effectively. Just because the wrench is old it does not mean that it shouldn't be used. In some circumstances this strategy can be effective in the same way that a wrench could; it just depends on the knowledge and skill of the user.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008). Program four. Behaviorist Learning Theory [Motion picture]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore: Author.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory and practice'the encyclopaedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.